Implementation of stimuli with millisecond timing accuracy in online experiments.

Online experiments are growing in popularity. This study aimed to determine the timing accuracy of web technologies and investigate whether they can be used to support high temporal precision psychology experiments. A dynamic sinusoidal grating and flashes were produced by setInterval, CSS3, and requestAnimationFrame (hereafter, rAF) technologies. They were run at normal or real-time priority processing in Chrome, Firefox, Edge, and Internet Explorer on Windows, macOS, and Linux. Timing accuracies were compared with that of Psychtoolbox which was chosen as gold standard. It was found that rAF with real-time priority had the best timing accuracy compared to the other web technologies and had a similar timing accuracy as Psychtoolbox in traditional experiments in most cases. However, rAF exhibited poor timing accuracy on Linux. Therefore, rAF can be used as technical basis for accuracy of millisecond timing sequences in online experiments, thereby benefiting the psychology field.

A system for the real-time tracking of operant behavior as an application of 3D camera.

The capacity of 3D cameras to measure many different aspects of behavior (e.g., velocity, pattern, and posture) could contribute to the understanding of behavior. The present article describes a system for the real-time tracking of operant behavior, which is applicable to other domains of behavioral science as well. Methods for real-time 3D tracking of animal behavior are described, along with sample C++ programs. A demonstration using one zebrafish as a subject indicated that the present system successfully tracked the 3D motion of the fish. Moreover, the acquisition of a target response (i.e., approach to a corner of the aquarium) was demonstrated with the arrangement of a reinforcement contingency at the corner in the absence of a traditional, salient operandum. The system offers the capacity to characterize more completely ongoing behavior in learning tasks across a range of species than simply performance of discrete operant responses. The system also is capable of tracking multiple individuals simultaneously so it is possible both to study social interactions and arrange contingencies for engaging in social behavior. Other possible applications of 3D cameras are discussed.

Increased entrances to side compartments indicate incubation of craving in morphine-induced rat and tree shrew CPP models.

In humans, cues associated with the rewarding effect of drugs of abuse induce drug craving and activate drug-associated memories after prolonged abstinence. In animal studies with the self-administration (SA) paradigm, responses to drug-associated cues increase within time after extinction, a phenomenon described as incubation of craving. Conditioned place preference (CPP) is widely used to measure the rewarding effect of drugs and the reward memory thereof. However, little is known whether responses to drug associated cues progressively increase after abstinence from the drugs in the CPP paradigm. To test whether the drug-associated cues could increase specific responses over the abstinence period in the CPP paradigm, we employed the high dose morphine-induced CPP paradigms in rats and tree shrews in the present study. We examined the CPP scores and the entrances to side chambers of the CPP apparatus to check whether they would progressively increase in the CPP paradigms. Twenty-one male adult Sprague-Dawley rats and eight adult male tree shrews were used to establish morphine-induced CPP and another ten rats treated with saline were controls for the rat experiments. After morphine conditioning, rats and tree shrews showed significant higher CPP scores at the first or second post tests than at baseline but then the CPP scores in the abstinence period decreased gradually. During the abstinence period, animals with morphine-conditioning experiences entered progressively more times to both side compartments, whereas the number of entrances to side chambers of the saline group in rats had no such significant differences. These findings suggest that progressively increased entrances to the side chambers in the extended abstinence period reflect the incubation of craving in high dose morphine-induced CPP paradigms. Also, our data imply that reward memory and drug craving can be distinguished in the CPP paradigm.

Alcohol seeking by rats becomes habitual after prolonged training / La búsqueda de alcohol en ratas se convierte en un hábito con la práctica reforzada

BACKGROUND: This study examines the effect of the amount of training on alcohol seeking behavior in rats. Contemporary theories of instrumental learning suggest that habit learning processes are involved in the development of the compulsive drug seeking that characterizes addiction. METHOD: Wistar rats were trained to perform an instrumental response for a solution of ethanol. In Experiment 1, the rats received 2 instrumental training sessions, whereas animals in Experiment 2 received 2, 8, or 16 sessions. An aversion was then conditioned to ethanol by pairing it with LiCl, and the performance in extinction was subsequently tested. RESULTS: Instrumental responding showed variable sensitivity to outcome devaluation as a function of the length of training. After 2 and 8 training sessions, but not after 16 sessions, drug seeking was influenced by a change in the value of ethanol. CONCLUSIONS: The results suggest that alcohol seeking is more flexible and goal-directed in early stages of training, but it becomes habitual and less governed by its consequences with more extended training

ANTECEDENTES: en este estudio se evaluó el efecto de la duración del entrenamiento instrumental sobre la conducta de búsqueda de alcohol en ratas. La investigación actual sugiere que la formación de hábitos E-R es responsable de la búsqueda compulsiva de la droga que caracteriza a las conductas adictivas. MÉTODO: se entrenó a las ratas a realizar una respuesta instrumental con etanol como recompensa. Los sujetos recibieron 2 sesiones de entrenamiento en el primer experimento y 2, 8 o 16 sesiones en el segundo estudio. Tras devaluar el etanol con LiCl se estimó la tasa de respuesta de los animales en extinción. RESULTADOS: el efecto de la devaluación del reforzador sobre la conducta instrumental dependió del número de sesiones de entrenamiento recibidas; la tasa de respuesta disminuyó tras un entrenamiento moderado (2 y 8 sesiones) pero no se vio afectada con un entrenamiento más prolongado (16 sesiones). CONCLUSIONES: los resultados sugieren que la búsqueda de alcohol depende del valor reforzante de la droga en la fase inicial de desarrollo de la adicción pero se vuelve rígida y automática (hábito) con la experiencia repetida

Stevia preferences in Wistar rats / Preferencia gustativa de las ratas Wistar por la estevia

BACKGROUND: The Stevia rebaudiana plant is likely to become a major source of high-potency sweetener for the growing natural-food market. S. rebaudiana is the source of a number of sweet diterpenoid glycosides, but the major sweet constituents are rebaudioside A and stevioside. These two constituents have similar pharmacokinetic and metabolic profiles in rats and humans, and thus, studies carried out with either steviol glycoside are relevant to both. Other studies illustrate the diversity of voluntary sweet intake in mammals. METHOD: This study was done using a series of two-bottle tests that compared a wide range of sweetener concentrations versus saccharin concentrations and versus water. RESULTS: Wistar rats displayed preferences for stevia extract and pure rebaudioside A solutions over water at a range of concentrations (0.001% to 0.3%), and their intake peak occurred at 0.1% concentration. They also preferred solutions prepared with a commercial rebaudioside A plus erythritol mixture to water, and their peak was at 2% concentration. CONCLUSIONS: The present study provides new information about the responses of Wistar rats to stevia compounds and commercial stevia products such as Truvia. These results could help with the appropriate dosage selection for focused behavioral and physiological studies on stevia

ANTECEDENTES: la planta Stevia rebaudiana se convertirá en una de las principales fuentes de edulcorantes debido al crecimiento del consumo de productos naturales en el mercado. S. rebaudiana contiene distintos glucósidos diterpenoides, pero los que proporcionan dulzor son el rebaudiosido A y el esteviosido. Estos dos compuestos tienen perfiles farmacocinéticos y metabólicos similares en ratas y humanos. Por otro lado, hay estudios que muestran la existencia de distintos patrones de ingesta voluntaria de edulcorantes en los mamíferos. MÉTODO: se realizaron series de la prueba de libre elección entre dos botellas. Comparamos la ingesta de un rango de concentraciones de edulcorantes frente al agua y frente a sacarina. RESULTADOS: las ratas Wistar prefieren el extracto de estevia y el rebaudiosido A (concentraciones desde 0,001% hasta 0,3%) frente al agua, la ingesta máxima fue a la concentración de 0,1%. También prefieren las soluciones preparadas con el producto comercial Truvia (rebaudiósido A y eritritol) frente al agua, la ingesta máxima fue a la concentración de 2%. CONCLUSIONES: nuestro trabajo proporciona nueva información sobre la preferencia gustativa de las ratas Wistar por distintos compuestos de estevia. Estos resultados ayudarán al diseño de estudios centrados en los efectos comportamentales y fisiológicos del consumo de estevia

Relational frame theory, mathematical and logical skills: a multiple exemplar training intervention to enhance intellectual performance

The current study investigated the effects of Relational Frame Theory (RFT) based training on mathematical and logical skills. A sample of 21 Swedish high school students attending first grade and second grade were assigned to either training (n= 10) or no-training conditions (n= 11). Measures of performance on mathematical tests, Raven’s Standard Progressive Matrices (SPM), and relational responding tasks were taken prior to and after training. For 8-10 weeks, the experimental group trained using SMART, an online multiple exemplar training program for enhancing relational skills. No significant differences between the groups were found on mathematical performance. A significant increase on SPM performance was observed for the experimental group. The findings are in line with previous research on RFT, suggesting that behaviorally based interventions can enhance intellectual performance. Population characteristics, SMART training procedures, strengths and methodological limitations are discussed (AU)

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A review of cognitive inhibition in adults with unipolar depression

Although it is generally accepted that systematic processing biases are associated with depressive episodes, what is less well understood are the mechanisms responsible for such negative cognitive biases. Overall, empirical evidence has suggested that cognitive inhibitory deficits of emotional processing may play a central role in the onset and maintenance of depression. Thus, research has begun to investigate cognitive inhibition, a mechanism proposed to be fundamental to the negative cognitive biases evidenced within depression. These investigations may help to fill these gaps in the literature. The aim of the current paper was to provide a comprehensive review of the literature related to cognitive inhibition and investigate the evidence supporting the role of cognitive inhibition in the development and maintenance of major depressive disorder. Relevant research is reviewed and the current methods for examining cognitive inhibition are discussed. Furthermore, the implications of these results for research examining selective attention within depression are considered (AU)

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THE IMPORTANCE OF INSTRUMENT MAKERS FOR THE DEVELOPMENT OF EXPERIMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY: THE CASE OF ALFRED BINET AT THE SORBONNE LABORATORY.

The importance of instrument firms in the development of psychology, and science in general, should not be underestimated since it would not have been possible for various leading psychologists at the turn of the twentieth century to conduct certain experiments without the assistance of instrument makers, as is often the case today. To illustrate the historical perspective introduced here, the example of Alfred Binet is taken, as he is an interesting case of a psychologist working in close collaboration with various French instrument designers of the time. The objective of this article is twofold: (1) to show the considerable activity carried out by early psychologists to finalize new laboratory instruments in order to develop their research projects; (2) to reassess the work of a major figure in French psychology through his activity as a designer of precision instruments. The development of these new instruments would certainly have been difficult without the presence in Paris of numerous precision instrument manufacturers such as Charles Verdin, Otto Lund, Henri Collin, and Lucien Korsten, on whom Binet successively called in order to develop his projects in the field of experimental psychology.

Mortality salience, political orientation and minimization of terrorists’ secondary emotions / Recuerdo de la mortalidad, orientación política y minimización de las emociones secundarias de los terroristas

BACKGROUND: From the framework of Terror Management Theory, the objective of the present research is to analyze the effect of mortality salience (MS) on the minimization of Muslim terrorists' secondary emotions (MSE, which can be understood as a particular kind of dehumanization), as a function of political orientation. METHOD: An experimental design was used, in which the participants (university students, N= 293) were randomly assigned to a control or experimental group, their political orientation was taken note of, and they were asked to attribute emotions to Muslim terrorists. RESULTS: In accordance with the hypotheses, the results indicate that, among those supporting tenets of the political left, MS originates less minimization of secondary emotions of the terrorists (MSE). However, among people who stand on the right, MS inspires greater MSE (that is, a lower attribution of these emotions).CONCLUSIONS: These results support the thesis that the effects of MS are not to be found exclusively in conservative people, and that they do not necessarily imply a conservative shift, but constitute a polarization in previous ideological tendencies or cultural worldview

ANTECEDENTES: desde el marco de la Teoría del Manejo del Terror (TMT), la presente investigación se centra en analizar los efectos del recuerdo de la propia mortalidad (mortality salience, MS) sobre la minimización sentimental (MSE, una forma particular de deshumanización) de los terroristas islamistas, en función de la orientación política. MÉTODO: se utilizó un diseño experimental en el cual los participantes (293 estudiantes universitarios) fueron asignados aleatoriamente a un grupo control o un grupo experimental, tomando nota sobre su orientación política, pidiéndoles que atribuyeran emociones a terroristas musulmanes. RESULTADOS: en coherencia con las hipótesis planteadas, los resultados indican que, entre personas de izquierdas, la MS da lugar a una menor MSE emocional de los terroristas. Entre personas de derechas, sin embargo, la MS promueve mayor MSE de dicho grupo

An automated Y-maze based on a reduced instruction set computer (RISC) microcontroller for the assessment of continuous spontaneous alternation in rats.

Continuous spontaneous alternation behavior (SAB) in a Y-maze is used for evaluating working memory in rodents. Here, the design of an automated Y-maze equipped with three infrared optocouplers per arm, and commanded by a reduced instruction set computer (RISC) microcontroller is described. The software was devised for recording only true entries and exits to the arms. Experimental settings are programmed via a keyboard with three buttons and a display. The sequence of arm entries and the time spent in each arm and the neutral zone (NZ) are saved as a text file in a non-volatile memory for later transfer to a USB flash memory. Data files are analyzed with a program developed under LabVIEW® environment, and the results are exported to an Excel® spreadsheet file. Variables measured are: latency to exit the starting arm, sequence and number of arm entries, number of alternations, alternation percentage, and cumulative times spent in each arm and NZ. The automated Y-maze accurately detected the SAB decrease produced in rats by the muscarinic antagonist trihexyphenidyl, and its reversal by caffeine, having 100 % concordance with the alternation percentages calculated by two trained observers who independently watched videos of the same experiments. Although the values of time spent in the arms and NZ measured by the automated system had small discrepancies with those calculated by the observers, Bland-Altman analysis showed 95 % concordance in three pairs of comparisons, while in one it was 90 %, indicating that this system is a reliable and inexpensive alternative for the study of continuous SAB in rodents.

Naming and categorization in healthy participants: crowed domains and blurred effects of gender

The study of category-specific effects has produced compelling insights into the structure, organization and functioning of cognitive processes. According to some accounts, the greater intra-category structural similarity for living things (LT) contributes to faster access to superordinate pictorial information, making LT easier to classify than structurally dissimilar items (i.e., nonliving things: NLT). Conversely, LT would be harder to name than NLT, as they must compete with within-domain structurally similar items in order to be properly discriminated. Additionally, it has been reported that men perform better with NLT than women, whereas women surpass men with LT but the reasons for this remain unclear. In the current study, we explored both the visual crowding hypothesis and the effects of gender by testing the performance of 40 healthy participants in classification and naming tasks. Analyses revealed that LT were classified significantly faster than NLT (ηp 2 = .11), but named significantly slower (ηp 2 = .25). Interestingly, the same results persisted after removing atypical categories that are known to distort the interpretation of data from the analyses. Moreover, we did not find the expected effects of gender. Men were more accurate than women naming NLT (ηp 2 = .13), and women did not surpass men in any task (AU)

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Discriminaciones condicionales con estímulos contextuales versus complejos: implicaciones en la transferencia del aprendizaje / Conditional discriminations using contextual versus complex stimuli: implication for learning transfer

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This study sought to determine the effect of two conditional discrimination procedures involving contextual vs complex stimuli, on two types of learning transfer. For this purpose, three experiments were carried out. The first experiment used a contextual control procedure and the second a complex control procedure. The third experiment compared the two procedures using an inter-group design. The first two experiments aimed to determine the effect of the teaching procedure used on the transfer of learning to new stimulus relations (first type of transfer). The third experiment sought to determine the effect of teaching conditional discriminations using wither contextual or complex stimuli on the other discrimination (second type of transfer). In the first experiment, four out of six subjects displayed transfer of learning to new stimulus relations; in the second, only two subjects displayed that transfer. In the third experiment, statistically-significant differences were recorded for the dependent variable: successful attempts in the test using contextual stimuli. The teaching of tasks using contextual stimuli appears to favour the transfer of learning to conditional discriminations involving complex stimuli; the reverse, however, is not true to the same extent. These findings may be useful for the teaching of complex discriminations to intellectually-disabled or autistic children (AU)

Impacto asistencial de la cartera de servicios de psicología en un servicio de salud mental / No disponible

El objetivo del presente trabajo es, por una parte describir la cartera de servicios realizada por el equipo de psicología de un servicio de salud mental, en base a conceptos de evidencia empírica y por otra parte, presentar algunos resultados del impacto a nivel asistencial del trabajo de equipo realizado

The aim of this paper is to describe a Psychology services portfolio in a mental health service, based on empirical evidence and on the other hand, present some results of the impact in the assistance level of the team work made

La medida de la capacidad reflexiva: instrumentos disponibles en castellano y tareas pendientes / The measurement of reflective capacity: instruments available in spanish and pending tasks

Introducción: La medida de la función reflexiva se ha convertido en un aspecto central para la evaluación e investigación de procesos en psicoterapia. Material y método: Se realizó una revisión sistemática de los instrumentos propuestos para la medida de la función reflexiva, actualizando la realizada por Luyten en el año 2011. Se realizó también una revisión de los instrumentos validados en lengua castellana. Resultados: Se encontraron cuestionarios, entrevistas, pruebas experimentales y proyectivas indicadas para la medida de función reflexiva. Conclusiones: En el momento actual faltan instrumentos validados en castellano para poder realizar investigaciones en este campo. Por esta razón, se hacen recomendaciones sobre formación de evaluadores, la puesta a prueba de instrumentos ya validados en muestras clínicas y la validación de instrumentos no disponibles en castellano (AU)

Introduction: The measurement of reflective functioning has become a centralaspect for evaluation and processes investigation in psychotherapy. Material and method: A systematic review of the proposed instruments for measuring reflective functioning was performed, updating that one realized by Luyten in 2011. A review of validated instruments in Spanish was also performed. Results: Questionnaires, interviews, experimental and projective tests indicated for the measurement of reflective functioning were found. Conclusions: At the current time, instruments validated in Spanish are absent to be able to perform investigations in this field. For this reason, recommendations for evaluators training, testing validated instruments in clinical samples and validation of non-available instruments in Spanish are performed (AU)

A within-subject between-apparatus comparison of impulsive choice: T-maze and two-lever chamber.

Whereas intertemporal choice procedures are a common method for examining impulsive choice in nonhuman subjects, the apparatus used to implement this procedure varies across studies. The purpose of the present study was to compare impulsive choice between a two-lever chamber and a T-maze. In Experiment 1, rats chose between a smaller, immediate reinforcer and a larger, delayed reinforcer, first in a two-lever chamber and then in a T-maze. Delay to the larger reinforcer changed in an ascending and descending order (0-32 s) across sessions. Experiment 2 examined the same between-apparatus comparison but under steady-state conditions with the delay fixed at 32 s. In Experiment 1, choice for the larger, delayed reinforcer was generally higher in the T-maze than in the two-lever chamber. Similarly in Experiment 2, steady-state choice for the larger, delayed reinforcer was higher in the T-maze. Choice for the 32-s delayed reinforcer was also greater in Experiment 2 than in Experiment 1, suggesting that extended exposure to the delay is required for the T-maze to yield reliable impulsive choice data. While the reasons for the between-apparatus discrepancies are at present unknown, results from both experiments clearly demonstrate that the apparatus matters when assessing overall level and reliability of impulsive choice data.

Screening the psychological laboratory: Hugo Münsterberg, psychotechnics, and the cinema, 1892-1916.

ARGUMENT: According to Hugo Münsterberg, the direct application of experimental psychology to the practical problems of education, law, industry, and art belonged by definition to the domain of psychotechnics. Whether in the form of pedagogical prescription, interrogation technique, hiring practice, or aesthetic principle, the psychotechnical method implied bringing the psychological laboratory to bear on everyday life. There were, however, significant pitfalls to leaving behind the putative purity of the early psychological laboratory in pursuit of technological utility. In the Vocation Bureau, for example, psychological instruments were often deemed too intimidating for a public unfamiliar with the inner workings of experimental science. Similarly, when psychotechnical means were employed by big business in screening job candidates, ethical red flags were raised about this new alliance between science and capital. This tension was particularly evident in Münsterberg's collaboration with the Paramount Pictures Corporation in 1916. In translating psychological tests into short experimental films, Münsterberg not only envisioned a new mass medium for the dissemination of psychotechnics, but a means by which to initiate the masses into the culture of experimental psychology.

A portable system for studying discrete-trial group choice.

Whether groups of people or animals behave optimally in relation to resources is an issue of interest to psychology, ecology, and economics. In behavioral ecology, the simplest model of optimal group choice is the ideal free distribution (IFD). The IFD model has been tested in humans with discrete or continuous inputs and through manual or automated procedures (e.g., Kraft, Baum, & Burge, 2002; Madden, Peden, & Yamagushi, 2002). Manual procedures tend to be time consuming, however, whereas automated procedures typically require access to a computer network. In this article, we describe a new automated system for discrete-trial tests of the IFD model. Our protocol involves a single computer connected to a digital projector (for stimulus presentation) and a network of gamepads (for registering choices). The system is comparatively inexpensive, easy to install, easy to transport, and it permits the automated collection of group data in minimal time. We show that the data generated through this protocol are comparable to those previously reported in the IFD literature.

Low-cost USB interface for operant research using Arduino and Visual Basic.

This note describes the design of a low-cost interface using Arduino microcontroller boards and Visual Basic programming for operant conditioning research. The board executes one program in Arduino programming language that polls the state of the inputs and generates outputs in an operant chamber. This program communicates through a USB port with another program written in Visual Basic 2010 Express Edition running on a laptop, desktop, netbook computer, or even a tablet equipped with Windows operating system. The Visual Basic program controls schedules of reinforcement and records real-time data. A single Arduino board can be used to control a total of 52 inputs/output lines, and multiple Arduino boards can be used to control multiple operant chambers. An external power supply and a series of micro relays are required to control 28-V DC devices commonly used in operant chambers. Instructions for downloading and using the programs to generate simple and concurrent schedules of reinforcement are provided. Testing suggests that the interface is reliable, accurate, and could serve as an inexpensive alternative to commercial equipment.

LE RICERCHE SPERIMENTALI DI ENZO BONAVENTURA SUL TEMPO SICOLOGICO.

The study of the subjective experience of time constitutes a classical research program of experimental psychology developed in many European laboratories during the first half of the twentieth century. Investigations of this kind were conducted also in Italy with research developed during the twenties in the psychological laboratory of the Institute of Higher Studies in Florence. In this context Enzo Bonaventura made an original contribution that was recognized and discussed also on an international level. The present paper would like to illustrate the theoretical methodological approach elaborated, and the results achieved, by this Italian researcher, with particular reference to the experimental techniques and instruments that he designed and created for this purpose. The experimental methodology in the study of the experience of time required the use of particularly precise instruments, by means of which it would be possible to arrive at the measurement and acquisition of quantitative data. In his study of the temporal experience, the Italian psychologist concentrated his attention especially on the presenting in succession of visual or auditory stimuli - all comprised in different comprehensive brief temporal intervals - and on the measure of the perceived temporal experience of time which the subject referred with an introspective act. The tachistoscope was the prince of instruments in this type of research, since it offered the possibility of presenting a visual stimulus for a very brief and measurable time. From the comparison between the classical tachistoscope, widespread in the European laboratories since the time of Wundt, and that modified by Bonaventura, there emerge substantial differences, not only and not so much on account of their diverse capabilities of performance, but especially because of the differences in the theoretical models and investigative objectives underlying such instruments.

Spontaneous recovery of human spatial memory in a virtual water maze / Recuperación espontánea de la memoria espacial en humanos en un laberinto virtual de agua

The occurrence of spontaneous recovery in human spatial memory was assessed using a virtual environment. In Experiment 1, spatial memory was established by training participants to locate a hidden platform in a virtual water maze using a set of four distal landmarks. In Experiment 2, after learning about the location of a hidden platform, the platform was placed in new position within the virtual water maze in order to extinguish the original learning. An immediate test showed that participants searched for the platform at its most recent location. In contrast, on a delayed test (24 h), participants tended to seek the platform at the original location. These findings are consistent with the spontaneous recovery effect on spatial memory and are discussed in relation to the cognitive map theory and associative approach of spatial memory (AU)

Se investigó la ocurrencia de recuperación espontánea de l memoria espacial en humanos expuestos a un entorno virtual. En el Experimento 1 la memoria espacial fue establecida por entrenar a los participantes a localizar una plataforma oculta en un laberinto virtual de agua empleando un conjunto de cuatro claves distales. En el Experimento 2,tras el aprendizaje sobre la localización de la plataforma, ésta se ocultó en un sitio novedoso dentro del laberinto virtual de agua a fin de extinguir el aprendizaje original. Una prueba inmediata mostró que los participantes buscaron la plataforma en sumás reciente ubicación. En cambio, en una prueba demorada (24 h), los participantes tendieron a buscar la plataforma en el sitio en el que originalmente se colocó. Estos resultados son consistentes con un efecto de recuperación espontánea de la memoria espacial y son discutidos en relación a la teoría del mapa cognitivo y a la aproximación asociativa de la memoria espacial (AU)